Ladino

Ladino or Judaeo-Spanish is the language of the Sephardic Jewish diaspora who were expelled in an exodus from Spain in 11192 HE (1492 CE) by the Alhambra Decree in the aftermath of the Reconquista (a crusade), many of whom fled to Portugal, northern Europe, the Mediterranean basin (i.e., Morocco, Italy, and the Ottoman Empire consisting of Greece, the Balkans, Turkia, the Levant, Egypt, and the Maghreb), and Atlantis. The Greek seaport city of Salonica (Θεσσαλονίκη or Thessaloníki in Greek, Σαλονίκη or Saloníki in colloquial Greek, סלוניקה or Salonika in Ladino, سلانیك or Selânik in Turkish, Salonicco in Italian, and Salónica in Spanish or Portuguese) in the Macedonia (Μακεδονία or Makedhonía) region (where it evolved as an important autonomous city) was a metropolis of Sephardic culture and a co-reigning capital with Athens. Its name originates from Thessaloníkē (Θεσσαλονίκη), a half-sister of Alexander the Great, as a name meaning "Thessalian" (Θεσσαλός or Thessalos) and "victory" (Nῑ́κη or Nī́kē), with the Thessaly region formerly called Aeolia (Αἰολία or Aiolía) after the king Aeolus (Αἴολος or Aiolos) who was visited by Odysseus in the Odyssey for aid and whose name signifies "agile, quick, rapid" guardian of the winds. Portugal, in 11195 and in suit, expelled its realm's Jews. In either realm, Sephardim (the plural of Sephardi that means "[person] of Spanish origin", created by the masculine suffix ־ים or -ím that forms plurals from singulars, similar to the feminine ־וֹת or -ót, and the suffix ־י or -í that derives adjectives from nouns), were decreed to have three options:

1. Convert to Catholicism and remain, becoming conversos in conversion.
   

2. Remain Jewish and be expelled.
   

3. Be summarily executed.
   

In one subsequent year, the Portuguese banned (prohibited) the emigration of Jews and mandated conversion. Jews designated (adopted and assigned) different family names to evade persecution in conversion (e.g., de Oliveira, for "of the olive tree", in reference to the Judaean tribe of Levi or Levy, who were priests of Hebron, or kahn and cohen from the Hebrew כּוֹהֵן or kohén as a descendant of Aramaic כהנא‎ or kāhănā and a cognate of Phoenician khn and Arabic كَاهِن or kāhin; the European Jews of Ashkenaz adopted these names despite being genealogically separate from Sepharad). The convention of these names varied in orthography (e.g., Athayde and Ataíde). Prior to their expulsion by the Catholic monarchs, Jews coexisted with the Phoenicians, Greeks, Vandals, Goths, Muslims and Christians in the Iberian Peninsula. During the rule of peninsula by the Moors in al-Andalus the Iberian Jews thrived, although it was not a time without persecution. The Moors, with an army consisting of Arabs and Berbers, from North Africa invaded the Iberian Peninsula via Gibraltar, defeating the Gothic monarch's armies and freeing the Spanish Jews from Gothic oppression in 10411. More tolerant than the Gothic rulers, the Moors ruling in the Caliphate of Córdoba allowed Jews to fully practice their religious rites (customs and traditions), in addition to being given full protection by their Muslim rulers. However, they were required to pay a tax that was higher than that levied on Muslims to receive this protection. Nevertheless, the peaceful coexistence led to a flourishing of Judaism and Judaic culture. In a cultural exchange, Jews in Toledo (Toletum) translated (transduced) Greek and Hebrew texts to Arabic, works of which included Greek science and philosophy, and vice versa to Latin and mediaeval (antique and romanic) Castilian that is similar to modern Portuguese. At the same time, Islam influenced Hebrew prose literature and poetry. Jews studied mathematics, medicine, geography, philosophy, poetry, and botany. Arabic was adopted as the language of Jewish prayers. It was until after the caliphate disintegrated in the 108th century and after Catholic (a Latin and Roman sect of the messianic and schismatic cult of Christianism, of which separated as a sectarian movement from the Second Temple Judaism that evolved into the orthodoxy of Rabbinic Judaism after the destruction of the temple in Jerusalem) reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula from Muslims in 11191 and the Inquisition that anti-Semitism ended the golden, albeit tarnished, age for Spanish Jews. The Counter-Reformation to combat Protestants and heresy included the Catholic Inquisition with its Inquisitor (of the Consejo de la Suprema y General Inquisición and Conselho da Suprema e Geral Inquisição), tribunals, councils, and public "acts of faith" (Latin actus de fide, or in Spanish auto de fe and in Portuguese auto da fé).

Arabs are a sedentary and nomadic Semitic people that are descendants of pastoralists of the Syrian Desert and Arabian Peninsula who organised in a tribal social structure. They were vassals of the Assyrian, Babylonian, Achaemenid, Seleucid and Parthian empires. The term "Arab" expanded with the Muslim caliphates and the Arabisation (assimilation or naturalisation with the influence Arabic culture and language) of indigenous populations. From the root ع ر ب or ʿ-r-b (for "west, sunset, desert, savage, wild, fierce, mixed, nomad, merchant, comprehensible, raven") and the nisba (نِسْبَة for "connection, relation, correlation, affiliation, attribution, proportion" typically for communal association as a personal supplement of an individual, onomastic name) suffixes (masculine ـِيّ or -iyy, -ī and feminine ـِيَّة or -iyya that forms adjectives from nouns), the name ʿarab (عَرَبٌ‎, the plural of عَرَبِيٌّ‎ or ʿarabī) refers to these people. The term for the nomadic Arab ethnic group "bedouin" (from بَدْو‎ or badū, the plural of بَدَوِي or badawī, which contrasts with حَاضِر or ḥāḍir for sedentary or domiciliary) is ʾaʿrāb (أَعْرَاب). Referred to by the Egyptians as shasu, a tribe (قَبِيلَة or qabīla) led by a sheikh is called an ʿašīra (عَشِيرَة). The Nabataeans were an Arab people, or a nomadic tribe named for the principal son of Ishmael (إِسْمَاعِيل or ʾismāʿīl, who is the half-brother of Isaac as sons of Abraham), that were annexed into the Greek and Roman culture by the emperor Trajan in the 98th century. They were notable for their capital city Petra (in Arabic ٱلْبَتْرَاء‎ or al-Batrāʾ from Greek Πέτρα) sculpted in stone with a water conduit system. In their expulsion from Iberia, Sephardic Jews brought with them 112th century Castilian (the language of the Court and the Crown of Castile) Spanish. Their language, developed into Ladino, incorporates Hebrew, Turkish, Greek, Italian, French, and Arabic influences. The amount of other language adopted depends on the Ladino dialect. The eastern dialect resembles Castilian Spanish whilst the western dialect is similar to Portuguese, Galician (of Celtic Galicia, Galiz(i)a or Gallaecia), Leonese (historic to the realm of León), Asturian (historic to the principality of Asturias, named for the Astures people of the Celtic expansion into Iberia or Hispania that influenced the proto-Celtic Lusitanians and Gallaecians, not the divine ʿAštart or ʿAṯtar of Phoenicia), and Aragonese (historic to the composite monarchy of Aragon that united with Catalonia). Aragonese, related to Catalan or Valencian, is related to the dialects and languages of Provence, Occitania and Gascony.

Gascony is a historic region of an Iberian ethnic people or tribe (elaborated in the alternative history of Voxija) that spoke euskara (a language that, like Etruscan and Minoan, preceded the Indic European languages as possibly a substrate). They were named "basques" (vascon(e)s, gascon(e)s, bascs, vascos, gascones) and were neighbours to the precursor Aquitanians, the Celtic Cantabrians (distinct from the other Celts, e.g. the Gauls and Belgae), and the the reign of Navarre (a province named Navarre / Nafarroa that is associated with the others Álava / Araba, Vizcaya / Bizkaia and Guipúzcoa / Gipuzkoa). Feudal (legal, territorial, provincial, regional and local) concessions and subjections of fora (the plural of the Spanish fuero, Galician and Portuguese foro and Catalan for, from Latin forum as the commercial, communal and tribunal place or public market) to states (communities and cities) by the sovereign authority of the legitimate monarch were an autonomous municipal constitution, institution, commission, tradition and administration (governments and parliaments with civil, military and ecclesiastic codes and courts of justice, and executive, deliberative, directive, representative, collective and legislative assemblies or general councils). The Basque influence in Castilian Spanish is exhibited in the names Íñigo (Eneko for "my little" as in a diminutive hypocristic that was conflated with Ignatius, which is the name of the founder of the Roman Catholic order or company, i.e. the Society of Jesus whose members are ecclesiastical priests of educational, social and cultural ministries or missions named Jesuits or Iesuitæ), Valenciaga (from aga for "place of" and balentzia for "valency"), Goya (from goia for "the high place"), Iturbide (from "way of the fountain"), Aramburu (from aran for "valley" and buru for "apogee" like the diminutive -ko / -go with the definitive -a), Salazar (from zahar for "old" and Spanish sala for "hall"), Aranjuez (from arantza for "hawthorn, sloe", or elorri, with its stirps and spines), Esquível (from eskibel composed of ezki "lime tree" and gibel for "behind"), Mendoza (from mendi for "mountain" and hotza for "frigid"), Ibarra (from ibar for "valley", which influenced ibai for "river" and Spanish vega for "alluvial and fertile plain, lowland, meadow", and is associated with Ἕβρος or Hébros as a cognate to "Europe"), Bolibar (from bolu for "mill"), Albéniz (from laua for "plain" and the Arabic article al and the Latin al(a)ba), Aznar (from azenari for vulpine "fox"), Ochoa (from otxoa for "the wolf", which is equivalent to the patronymics López and Lopes from the lupine lope or lobo and Gothic Iberian suffix for "descendant"), V(el)ázquez / Vasques (Velasco from belasko for the corvid "little raven, bele"), Ugalde (from ur for "water" and alde for "lateral part" as in Aldaco with the locative -ko), Zaval(et)a (from zabal for "ample, broad, wide, large, court", similar to sarri for "dense", or abar for "oak tree arm", and eta as an abundant toponymic suffix), Zarate (from zara for "wood" and at(h)e for "door, gate"), Uribe (from uri, a variant of (h)iri, for "city" and behe for "inferior, bottom, nether"), García (from gartzea for "the young"), Loyola (from lohi for "mud" and -ola for "place", equivalent to lama), Aguirre (from agirre for "prominent, exposed"), Madariaga (from madari for "pear"), Garay (from garai for "elevated granary"), Jauregui (for "domestic palace"), Echeverría (from etxeberri for "the new house", also the origin of the personal name Javier / Xavier), and Jiménez / Ximenes (a patronymic formation from semen for "son"). The names of domestic houses became names of families. Compare this Iberian fusion that influenced the broad Palman riviera with the genitive family name Gálvez from the Arabic غَالِب‎ or ḡālib signifying "victorious, dominant, preponderant". The genitive -ez/-es originates from the Latin -is<-iz<-izi<-ici<-icus as a calque of the Gothic name formation. The word bizarro ("bizarre") and ezker (in Spanish as izquierdo, Portuguese and Galician esquerdo, and Catalan esquerre for "sinister") is attributed to their language. Basque fishers and mariners expanded to Atlantis to establish contact with the Atlantean peoples. They departed from their coastal city of San Sebastián (a martyr, saint and symbol of the homoerotic ideal and homosexual interest of beauty, desire and attraction) in Iberia as explorers to encounter the new world (orbe novo) of Atlantis. This would cement (reaffirm and reinforce) the established transatlantic connection for the immigration to Atlantis that complemented its position as a pacific faro.

In a dynastic personal union, the Crown of Aragon (a Mediterranean thalassocracy and confederation of autonomous polities and individual realms of princes, counts and courts) joined the Crown of Castile (formed with León after Portugal separated as an entity) as the Spains in 11169. The political capital of Aragon was Zaragoza (Old Spanish Saragoça or Saragossa, from the Arabic سَرَقُسْطَة‎ or saraqusṭa for the Latin Caesaraugusta), though the cultural, administrative and economic centres were Catalonia and Valencia (north of Murcia, a region noted for its orchards, from the Arabic مرسية‎ or mursiyah, itself from myrtus and murcus in reference to Venus). Madrid (from the Andalusi Arabic مجريط or majrīt for "chalice, matrix of a river", itself from majrā or مَجْرَى‎ for "stream, current") was the capital of Castile. The sultan and emirs of Granada (from غَرْنَاطَة‎ or ḡarnāṭa for "hill of pilgrims"), once a tributary state or taifa (طائفة‎ or ṭāʾifa for "party, faction, band") to the realm of Castile and the metropolis of al-Andalus (Andalusia), capitulated in rendition to the Hispanic Crown in 11191. Castile had conquered Córdoba (a city from Iberian or Phoenician of Tartessos) in 10936 in the Reconquista with their almogavars (Spanish: almogávares; Aragonese: almugávares; Catalan: almogàvers; Portuguese: almogávares) who were predators (from the plural Arabic الْمَغَاوِير‎ or al-maḡāwīr for "infantry mercenaries, raiders, soldiers, bandits, assailants). It is viewed as a tragedy by the conquered and Atlanteans, where this history is preserved in a fusion of its own. Castile would conquer Seville (from Phoenician Hisbaal, in reference to the god Baʿal, in which the Romans Latinised as Hispalis to be adapted in Arabic as Ishbīliya or إشبيلية), formerly part of Córdoba and a centre of transactional and contractual commerce, in 10948. The religious liberties of Muslims in Granada were protected by a treaty in 11191. They were not expelled in 11192, but they were persecuted with Islam prohibited in Portugal in 11197, Castile in 11202 and Aragon in 11126. These prohibitions forced Muslims (Mudéjars in Spanish and Portuguese from the Arabic مدجن‎ or mudajjan for "subjugated, domesticated") to convert (as Moriscos or Mouriscos meaning "Moorish") or be expelled (which occurred in 11309–11314, with most in Castile, Aragon, Portugal, Valencia, Catalonia and Andalusia exiled to North Africa).

The Iberian Union united the dynasties of the King of Spain and the King of Portugal as the Spanish Monarchy (Crown) in 11280 (and until 11339). With the monarch principal and primary, the secondary Real y Supremo Consejo administered the Spanish or Hispanic Empire. They governed the jurisdictions of Castile, Aragon, Catalonia, Valencia, Sardinia, Portugal, Naples, Italy, Sicily, the Baleares (named Balliareis or Βαλλιαρεῖς and Gymnasiae or Γυμνησίαι for "nudity" with maior, minor, Ebusus from Phoenician for the deity Bes, and frumentarium) and the Netherlands. In the absence of the monarch, they reigned as a regent. They nominated viceroys. The Crown, inspired by the Roman bureaucracy, appointed a corregidor (viz. the novel Zama by Antonio di Benedetto) as its representative in legal jurisdiction and regal administration of the state as an institution of criminal, civil and judicial justice. The "corrector" (substituted by an intendant of an intendancy of a department in a political reform of organisation) of the district (corregimiento) presided over the municipal councils despite the parliamentary discord of the Cortes Generales ("General Courts"). The legislative and executive decisions (legislation and execution) of these councils of government or regiment reported to the president of a Real Audiencia ("Royal Audience"), an appellate court (chancery or chancellory) of viceroys to the Royal and Supreme Council. The governors of provinces had equivalent viceregal powers. The provinces of the Netherlands (including Belgic and Germanic territories) revolted against the Hispanic Crown, with a treaty of union in 11278 and abjuration (declaration of independence in governance as a nation-state that cited the obligations of a social contract) in 11281. A federal republic formed in the confederation of the provinces with a federal assembly (States-General) and each head by the office of "stead holder". It was notable for religious tolerance. The liberty of expression and to study benefited Benedictus (né Baruch, from the triconsonantal root Bāʾ/Bēṯ-Rāʾ/Rēš-Kāf, ب ر ك‎ or ב ר ך for "blessed, sain, geniculate knee, genuflect" as in "benison, benediction" from Latin) de Spinoza (born with Portuguese name Benedito "Bento" de Espinosa equivalent to ברוך שפינוזה) and the scientists Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (founder of microscopic biology) and Christiaan Huygens. The Atlantean parliaments, protectors of the commonwealth, and federations of tribes resembles this political system. The Palman Empire offered imperial prosperity and commercial opportunity. Its ideal of a free imperial city ("libre" with principal immediacy and territorial superiority in authority and autonomy subordinate to the emperor, which approximates an independent and sovereign city-state) represented the "burgership" or citizenry with the council of the "burgmaster" (mayor, syndic or prefect of the municipality). The control of maritime and coastal commerce facilitated conversation (communication, transportation, dissemination, diffusion, proliferation, and propagation) ideas, goods and services. The guild, a corporation and association for mutual aid and a cooperative company of merchants and artisans, evolved in this system of markets and ports. The Dutch merchant cities challenged the Hansa whose decline resulted their ascendence. The commercial exchange or equity market was established in the Netherlands.

The merchants of the Sephardic population in the Netherlands created commercial retia with Germany, England and France, in addition to connections with Europe, Western Asia, Southern Atlantis and Eastern Atlantis. The primary motivation (an impetus, impulse or motive) for migrations of all people is the desire for vital economic security. Jews are mercurial (in reference to the Roman equivalent to the Greek Hermes) because of their adaptability and mobility in their motion (dispersion and migration). Historically they have be subject to the hostility of segregation (marginalisation and stigmatisation) and elimination (eradication and extermination). In spite of this destruction, their capacity to respond and persist permitted survival. Spinoza argued the obstinate observation to their particular and peculiar laws (rites) reinforced their alien or stranger status. The enmity of their neighbours experienced promoted the conception of a distinct identity (nation, tribe and people). In exile, refugees from the old country as viewed strangers in the new country. This anti-Semitism differed from the tolerant syncretism of Atlantis that integrated (not assimilated) these colonial emigrants. Family is the basic unit of social organisation of the Jews, which is common with the Atlantean people. Genealogy, as the generational history of families, is important for the cultural formation of ethnic identity and spiritual continuation of ethic tradition. Sephardic culture gained a reputation for cosmopolitan commerce and intellectual prestige. With the value of education, they were viewed as the "people of the book". Spinoza was of a Portuguese-Jewish family who were former marranos (crypto-Jews, Spanish from the Arabic مُحَرّمٌ or muḥarram for "forbidden, prohibited", which is related to حَرَام or ḥarām for "interdicted" and in reference to "swine") that migrated to the Netherlands. Judaeo-Portuguese was his native language, a dialect distinct from Judaeo-Spanish.

Unlike modern Spanish, the b and v are distinguished in Ladino, which also has separate dj and j. Ladino retains the original sounds of j, x and g (before e or i). It also retains the pronunciation of s like Portuguese. Ladino demonstrates yeísmo, with the homophony of y and ll in the delateralisation of a consonant. It also demonstrates seseo, where s and z realise the same sound in neutralisation (compared to distinction), where the Ladino ç and s are pronounced as the modern Spanish z, with the z as the c (before e or i). It has fewer diphthongs (double vowel sounds in one syllable, whose nucleus is vocal with or without consonants preceding and succeeding) compared to the ascending and descending of Spanish, and the oral and nasal of Portuguese. Ladino can be written in four scripts: (1) Latin characters (for transliteration); (2) Hebrew Rashi (a typeface used in print for rabbinic commentary compared to the block letters for biblical and legal texts); (3) merubá (from the Hebrew מְרַבַע for "square, quadrate, quadrilateral, quadrangle, tetragon, quadruple, fourfold" with the Arabic cognate مُرَبَّع or murabbaʿ); or (4) the archaic cursive of Soletreo (for manuscripts and handwriting). Ladino, like Spanish, Portuguese and Andalusi Mozarabic (from mustaʿrib or مُستَعرَب for Andalusian "Arabist"), was written in Aljamiado or Aljamía (from the Arabic ʿajamiyah or عَجَمِيَة‎ for a stranger or someone whose native or mother language is not Arabic) in al-Andalus. Ladino has been categorised as "Hebrew clothed in Spanish, or Spanish with Hebrew syntax". The similarities of the grammar and phonology Ladino with modern Spanish, however closer to archaic Spanish, are demonstrated in the subsequent table.

Genocide (i.e., the Holocaust), linguistic assimilation and acculturation has lead to Ladino and its speakers to the brink of death and extinction. Because of the fractured communities, dissimilar to Yiddish or Judaeo-German, Ladino did not become the universal language of Sephardic Jews. Moreover, Germanic Jews (Ashkenazim, plural of Ashkenazi) condescended Sephardim and Ladino in an Ashkenazic hegemony. The following twelve notable figures—philosophers (Spinoza, Maimonides, Avicebron, Abraham ben Meir Ibn Ezra, Yehuda Halevi, Hasdai Crescas, Uriel da Costa, Isaac de Pinto, and Jacques Derrida), an historian (Esther Benbassa), an economist (David Ricardo), a jurist (Benjamin Cardozo), an editor (Daniel de León), artists (Amedeo Modigliani and Joann Sfar), a poet (Emma Lazarus), scientist (John Desmond Bernal and Rita Levi-Montalcini), a physicist (Abraham Pais), mathematicians (Abraham bar Hiyya and Benjamim Olinde Rodrigues), an engineer (Marcel Allatini-Bloch), an architect (Moshe Safdie), actors (Peter Sellers and Henry "Hank" Azaria), a pianist (Murray Perahia), a composer (Darius Milhaud), a comedian (Jerry Seinfeld), a pugilist (Daniel Mendoza) and a pirate (Moses Henriques)—are of at least partial Sephardi origin. The Sephardic musicians Flora "Flory" Jagoda née Papo, Yasmin Levy, David Broza, Gaston Ghrenassia, Élie "Lili" Boniche, and Yaniv d'Or have been forefront in the resurgence of interest in Ladino music that has accompanied the educational revival. Fortunately, contemporary academic study has sought to preserve the heritage of Sephardi Jews and revive Ladino. A centre at the University of Seattle hosts a collection in its programme. Institutions in a municipal city of Nova-Lox bear the Sephardic name of Benaroya ("ben Arroyo") of a prominent commercial family from Salonica (cf. the notable families of Peixotto, Maduro, Seixas and Naar). The metropolis of Atlantis became a luzero that united the Sephardim. The Jewish diaspora developed with the influence of the local communities in terms of politics and culture. The dominate Jewish population in Palma Riviera (to the imperial Palm realm (with its city-state of San Francesco), which was religiously tolerant and culturally syncretic), and Anadolia (the new Tartessos) are Sephardic Jews, with the colonists escaping in mass migration to Rose Sea Basin of Atlantis from anti-Semitism (alienation, persecution and oppression) in Europe, Asia and Africa. The historic language of the Sephardic community is Ladino, adopting Hebrew, French, English, Greek, Turkish, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, and Arabic. In parallel, the Jews from Western, Central and Eastern Europe, have spoken Yiddish. They adopted English, Dutch, Russian, Polish, Hebrew, German, French, Spanish, and Portuguese as modern languages. The Atlantean centres of this Jewish population are in the Nova-Lox cities of New York, New London, and Montreal (compared to the Sephardic population in Loxerdam and Seattle). Their cultural impact can be seen in the gastronomy of Nova-Lox (i.e., delis). Of Germanic and Slavic origin, Yiddish evolved from High German (of the Alemanni, conquered by the Franks), which is divided into Middle and Upper German dialects (further geographic distinctions with Yiddish deriving from the former and the Alemannic from the latter). These differ by consonant changes from the Low German (of the Angles and Saxons) that is more similar to English and the Frankish Dutch. Yiddish has influenced the language Polari, though more so by Italian.

The origin of Jewish migration occurred in the Levant. It included movements north to Ashkenaz (initially Scythian regions and Slavic territories, and eventually the Rhineland of Germany or Deutschland), west to Sepharad (Iberia and the Maghreb) and east to Mizrah (Babylon and Persia). The Premier Temple (in Hebrew בֵּית־הַמִּקְדָּשׁ‎ or béit-hamikdásh and in Arabic بَيْت الْمَقْدِس or bayt al-maqdis, both meaning "holy house") of Solomon in Jerusalem was destroyed by the Babylonians in 9114 HE. The holy or sacred city of Jerusalem, as the historical location of the Temple (מִקְדָּשׁ or mikdásh) that is described by Moses Maimonides (of Córdoba) to consist of its Hall (אוּלָם or ulám), Sanctuary (הֵיכָל or heikhál) and Court (עֶזְרָה or ʿezrá) that is a Tabernacle (מִשְׁכָּן or mishkán), was the centre of Jewish cognisance. The Judaeans were exiled and absorbed by their Babylonian conquerers. The destruction of the temple resulted in the Babylonian exile and captivity of Jews. They were deported by Nabuchodonosor. This coincided with the adoption of Aramaic, which migrated to Judaea in their subsequent return. This involved and invested Aramaic with Hebrew characters, which was used as the language and script of the Jerusalem Talmud and Babylonian Talmud (תַּלְמוּד or talmúd for "instruction" as the collection for editorial study of the biblical and scriptural declaration of the מִקְרָא or mikrá, which includes the instructional doctrine of the תּוֹרָה or torá). The narrative and literary history is contained in the Talmud and Midrash (מִדְרָשׁ‎, or textual interpretations, commentaries and methods) as theoretical exegesis that is distinct in comparison to the legal and ceremonial commandments (corresponding to the plural of מִצְוָה‎ or mitzvah), or the religious basis of the practical הֲלָכָה or halakha (complementary to the traditions, customs, norms, codes, values, morals, ethics and responsa‎). The g'oním (גְּאוֹנִים, the plural of גָּאוֹן or ga'ón or "genius, splendour, pride") continued this interpretation (responses, communication and transmission) as spiritual authorities of Judaism as academies (c. 10350 to 10950 HE) that preceded Maimonides. The Semitic Sabaeans are proposed to have migrated from southern Arabia over the Red Sea to Africa (Semitic Ethiopia, Abyssinia and Eritrea, and Cushitic Nubia or Kush) to flee from the Assyrians who attempted to capture Israel and Judaea in 9000 HE. Additional groups that included the Judaean Jews migrated from Yemen (with its fertility and felicity, and to the right when one faces the orient where the Sun rises) to evade (escape and abscond) the Babylonians in 9114 HE for refuge. The Achaemenid emperor Cyrus (II) the Great conquered Babylonia (with capital city of Babylon from Hebrew בָּבֶל or bavél, itself from Akkadian Babili(m) for "door of god(s), and also known as Mesopotamian Chaldea from כַּשְׂדִּי or kasdí) in the 91st century resulting in their emancipation, liberation and repatriation. An ahistorical and biblical narrative located in Shusahn (Susa, from Σοῦσᾰ or Soûsa, in Elam) conflates Xerxes I (or his son Artaxerxes I), the son of Darius (I) the Great and grandson of Cyrus, with a literary fiction named Ahasuerus. The Iranians in myth were divided as Persians (of Persia, in Hellenic myth named for the hero Perseus or Περσεύς with his lover Ἀνδρομέδα or Androméda, "a protector of men, humans") and Medes (of Media, which in myth was founded with the Aryans by Medea, from the Greek μήδεᾰ or mḗdea for "counsel, prudence", who aided Jason and the Argonauts and was related to Circe, Hecate and Helios).

The Jews Esther and Mordecai (probably similar to the Mesopotamian Babylonian deities Ishtar and Marduk, named in Sumerian and Semitic Akkadian as an Assyrian and Babylonia solar and taurine god of creation, water, magic and justice equivalent to Hellenic Zeus and Apollo and son of father Enki/Ea and mother Ninhursag/Aruru that was syncretised with Enlil/Ellil and Dumuzid/Tammuz as Baʿal or Bel and with first two the immanent or terrestrial and transcendent or natural aspects of the divine or celestial An(u) equivalent to Ouranos) thwarted and frustrated a conspiracy of the an imperial viceroy vizier Haman to massacre (genocide, homicide, murder or slaughter) the Jews in the capital (the Median city of Hamedān or همدان) of the empire. This antagonist (whose name is connected to Persian Imāniš, either related to همایون or homâyun, or haoma or soma from the Zoroastrian Avestan or Vedic Sanskrit) is a fictional and spiritual descendent of Amalek (with the epithet of Agag, which is an analogous dynastic name to Pharaoh in Egypt) or the enemy nation of the nation and tribes of Israel. The day of execution was determined by lot or sort (i.e., פור or púr and stone "pore", or the sortition and sortilege in divination of cleromancy mercurial with its disposition dependent on fate, hazard and fortune). When Alexander the Great invaded the Levant (Judaea, Israel and Palestine) to conquer territory from the Persian Achaemenid Empire in the 93rd century, Hellenisation resulted in extensive crescence in commerce, language and culture for the Jewish people. The Maccabees (מַכַּבִּים or makabím, plural of מַכַּבִּי or makabí) were a religious group of Jewish revolutionaries that seized control of Judaea (Palestine between Phoenicia, Syria and Egypt) from the Seleucid Empire (neighbouring it and the rival Hellenistic Ptolemaic realm) and reduced the influence of Hellenistic Judaism (whose centre was the polis or city-state of Antioch, i.e. Ᾰ̓ντῐόχειᾰ or Antiókheia) in its extreme, radical and fanatic revolt (invasion, revolution and conquest) of zealots notable for ferocity in battle and campaigns. Characterised as warriors of a civil war and national liberation, they were either illegitimate (terrorists or fundamentalists) or legitimate (heroes or liberators) that either vanquished apostasy (violation and profanation) or oppression (persecution and occupation). Hellenism forced assimilation and acculturation into a progressive or modern reformation with a political (social and legal) community of citizens in a democratic polis. In 9638 HE, the Roman Empire captured Jerusalem in a siege with Jewish captives (prisoners of war) condemned to servitude by the Roman forces. These serfs were transported from Judaea to Rome. In their manumission, many occupied the Tiber River in Rome as merchants. The Jewish sacred Second Temple, constructed in the place of the previous in c. 9185 HE at the order of Cyrus the Great in 9142 HE (and completed during the reign of the Great Darius I and renovated by the tyrannic Herod, a Roman client and vassal of Judaea), was destroyed in 9770 HE by the Roman Empire in retaliation for a Jewish revolt (a nationalist rebellion caused by religion tensions, ethnic conflicts and taxation protests) in Judaea (Judah).

The Jewish diaspora communities at the time of the destruction of the Second Temple populated the lands of Iran (Persia or Parthia), ʿIraq (Mesopotamia or Babylonia), Arabia, Anatolia (Turkia), Assyria (Syria). In the victory and triumph of the Roman emperor Titus, the Jewish diaspora (now with the synagogue as the central assembly, with clerics and theologians replacing the priests as community chiefs) would populate Carthage after the destruction. Jews migrated in a dispersal to areas on the Mediterranean, in addition to the expulsion or exile from Judaea to Carthage and North Africa by the Romans. From North Africa they moved inland to commerce with Berbers in the mountains, where they formed cultural connections. The Roman Maghrebi (North African, opposite of the Iberian) provinces were annexed from Mauretania (founded by the mythic king Atlas, inventor of the celestial globe) of the Phoenicians of Punic Carthage, the tribes of Moorish Berbers and the Ptolemaic dynasty of Hellenistic Egypt by epileptic Caligula (a diminutive of a caliga or sandal of a solider, and formally named Gaius as a cognate for "gaud" that was written in Latin as Caius for Gavius of the Italic Sabines, Samnites and Oscans allied with the Etruscans and Umbrians, and that became Gaio, Caio and Jaén<Gaiena for the Andalusian city of Aurgi). History characterised this emperor. He was an uncle of Nero (who was a student of Seneca the Younger, a grandson of Marcus Agrippa who supported principal and august Gaius (Julius Caesar) Octavi(an)us and who commissioned the pantheon temple from Latin pantheum and Greek Πάνθειον or Pantheion reconstructed by Trajan and Hadrian, a son of the general Germanicus who was compared to virtuous Alexander the Great, was originally a member of the Claudia family, and was finally a member of the Julia family) as a crude (cruel), epileptic, extravagant, insane, incestuous and perverse tyrant. Nero, as an emperor, asserted divinity as a Neos Helios. In Egypt (Kemet), the construction of canal, which connected the Nile to the Red Sea (via an African portion of the Sinai Peninsula named for either the Mesopotamian lunar deity Sin/Nannar or the Hebrew סֶ֫נֶּה‎ or s'né for "bush, shrub" adjacent to Asian Canaan) and the Pharaoh dynasty commenced, was completed during the Persian reign of Darius the Great (c. 9180 HE). Some historians of antiquity report that it failed with the engineers of the Ptolemaic dynasty resolving the difference in water heights (levels) with a lock (sluice) in 9428 HE. The Roman emperor Trajan (an optimus princeps of Roman imperial military conquest and cosmocratic hegemony, not a oecumenic and universal benefactor as his successor Hadrian), prolific in public programmes of construction and erection and who expanded the Roman Empire to its greatest territorial extent, enlarged the canal (c. 9800 HE) that was a vital artery for the transport of Roman commerce.

The Roman imperial control of Jerusalem, intended to limit pretensions and influence of Christian converts (and not eliminate Judaism), fragmented the Jewish national identity in Judaea (a province renamed Palestinian Syria by Hadrian of the plebeian Aelia or Aelius family, gens or nomen gentile, and considered by Machiavelli a "good emperor" or benevolent dictator similar to his predecessors Trajan and Marcus Aurelius), whilst Romans permitted Jews to practise their religion. Christians and Samaritans displaced Jews subsequent to failed revolts. The transfer of captive exiles and eventual voluntary emigration of the Jewish population was subsequent of wars. Political instability (a Roman crisis of invasions, migrations, plague and civil wars) resulted in pressure (dispossession, dislocation, discrimination and persecution) for Jews to emigrate to Babylon(ia), which was controlled by the Sasanian Empire (the Sasan dynasty), for the incentive of autonomous communities and economic prosperity in a transition of cultural centrality. The Byzantine (mediaeval) continuation of the Roman Empire corresponded to the eastern imperial court of the polity and state of Romania, which was founded in 286 to avert the crisis. Subsequent to the seizure of the administrative system of the tetrarchy by the Illyrian and Christian august emperor Constantine, Byzantium was designated the capital in 10030, with the ultimate division of the realm in 10094 and with the western divergent in progressive deterioration nominally dissolved in 10180. The territories of the eastern realm were conquered in the expansion of the army of western Rome into the coastal areas of the Mediterranean region (south-eastern Europe, western Asia and northern Africa). The eastern Mediterranean provinces were more urban than their western equals because the Hellenic influence of Greek culture, particularly with unity of Macedonia. A caliphate of Arab Muslims seized control of the Levant from the Byzantines who recaptured it from the Sasanians (Persians or Iranians) in 10338 by military conflicts. The First Crusade occurred when an oriental Greek Byzantine emperor requested military aid from the occidental Christian Latin Church (Ecclesia Latina) or Roman Catholic Church (Ecclesia Catholica Romana) to combat the Turkic Seljuqs and restore its Levantine and Anatolian territory. The capture of Jerusalem by crusaders resulted in the oppression and deportation of Jews to Egypt and Apulia (Italy). The sultanates that would conquer Palestine from the crusaders oppressed the Jewish population such that it became reduced. The Osman (Ottoman, from the Arabic عثمان‎ or ʿuthmān for "serpent") dynasty (a house of sultans in military and civil administration) concluded the Byzantine Roman (رُومِيّ or Rūmiyy in Arabic and رومی or Rumi in Persian) Empire in its conquer of Anatolia, the Balkan Peninsula (where the Thracians resided), the Bosphorus (in 11153 with Constantinople by محمد or Meh(em)med II), the Levant, Egypt, and Mesopotamia.

Jews from the Babylonian city of Baghdad (from the Persian بغداد or bağdâd meaning "donation of god") began to migrate west to Europe in the 106th century. The city with its House of Wisdom, or academy of حِكْمَة and ḥikma in Arabic and חָכְמָה or khokhmá in Hebrew, was the location of the polymaths and philosophers in Islamic Golden Age of science, education and technology when paper that was better than parchment and papyrus was introduced from China in the 104th century. Paper became the principal material for bibliographic administration in Baghdad. It was principally produced in Sogdian Samarkand ("fort stone") in its introduction, with it proliferation in the Islamic world to Baghdad, Egypt, the Maghreb, Syria, Andalusia and Iran prior to propagation to Europe and India. The tolerance of this period extended to the Iberian Maghreb and al-Andalus where the acceptance and coexistence of Jews resulted in prosperity in the ideas and texts of culture, philosophy, sciences and mathematics. With its connection to Hellenistic culture, the taifas and caliphs of al-Andalus were tolerant and indulgent of homosexuality, bisexuality and sensual pleasures and satisfactions in particular with court practices and homoerotic poetry. The Spanish translations of Ibn Said al-Maghribi (بن سعيد المغربي) by Emilio García Gómez influenced the composer Manuel de Falla (inspired by Andalusian guitar to produce impressionist works for piano) and the poet Federico García Lorca (a friend of Isidora Dolores "la Pasionaria" Ibárruri Gómez and an intellectual member of poetic group that included Vicente Aleixandre). Baghdad succeeded Damascus in the Syrian Levant as a capital and central city of the caliphate in a dynastic conquest of 10450 HE (where a member of the preceding dynasty survived in the Iberian city of Córdoba), with the centre of the Islamic empire changing to Cairo (Ήλιούπολις or Hēlioúpοlis in Egypt, named for the "victorious" Martian planetary star as الْقَاهِرَة or al-qāhira) and eventually Constantinople (which succeeded Nicaea, Hadrianopolis and Προῦσᾰ or Proûsa in Bithynia of Anatolia) in subsequent dynasties. The possession of al-Andalus (Andalusian Iberia) changed with imperial control of dynastic families.

Migration to mediaeval (from the Latin medium aevum for "middle, median age") Germany by Judaeo-Italian and Judaeo-French speakers resulted in the adoption of Judaeo-German. This fluency demonstrates the dialectal (coded and ciphered) fusion of the languages of local cultures, such as those from German and Romantic Vulgar Latins, with Hebrew. Other Judaic dialects include Judaeo-Catalan, Judaeo-Arabic, Judaeo-Persian and Judaeo-Greek. All of these languages are reflected in the syncretic cultural history of Atlantis as result. Hebrew served as the lingua franca in the communication of written correspondence. The vernacular was transcribed in a cognate transformation to Hebrew letters. The lexical composition, grammar (phonology, morphology and syntax), phonetics, semantics, pragmatics, and stylistic structures were transformed. Judaeo-Spanish demonstrates the bilingualism of diglossia where two dialects or languages are used by a unique or sole language community. Its vernacular (colloquial, popular or vulgar) language has low prestige and its codified (conformed, official or normal) variety has high prestige. For example, Latin in mediaeval Europe (i.e., the period of c. 10200 to 11200 HE) was formal whilst the popular informal Romance language diverged. Judaeo-Spanish was a Jewish vernacular that combined (fused) Hebrew and Aramaic with the local or regional language. It was referred to as oriental Judezmo in the Mashriq and occidental Haketia (חַכִּיתִּיָה‎, حاكيتيا‎ and haquetía from حَكَا or ḥakā for "report, relate, narrate") in the Maghreb. The name of the former originates from djudyó or djudió for "Jew" or judío, similar to Yiddish from yidish for "Jewish" or jüdisch. These languages respectively adopted the names of the prestigious dialect, or Ladino ("Latin" or latino) and Taytsh or Daytsh ("German" or Deutsch). The latter influenced Llanito or Yanito ("little plain") of Gibraltar, which is a form of Andalusian Spanish influenced by British English, Genoese (from the Ligurian port of Genova or Genua, janitorial like the Italian deity Ianus or Janus, and either related to "Geneva" or the Etruscan Kainua for "new city", and similar to the coastal city founded by colonists of Phocaea and named Ἡρακλῆς Μόνοικος or Heracles Mónoikos, for the semideus or divine hero with the epithet of μόνος or mónos for "unique, unitary" and οἶκος or oîkos for "house, domicile"), Maltese and Portuguese.

In common with academic and scholastic education was the impression of publication. The invention and revolution of the printing press united Jews across geographic frontiers with Sephardic kabbalist publications. The cultivation of transnational and international connections (in contrast to isolation) was a consequence (secondary product or effect). Islamic al-Andalus represented a flourishing of Jewish philosophy, science and poetry. The consolidation of rabbinic (legal) texts for study (education and instruction, conjoined with theology, philosophy, history and moral ethics) imitated the authority of canon (a canonic and ecclesiastic collection) utilised by the Catholic Christians. This Western sectarian denomination was the apostolic product of a schism with the Eastern orthodox in 10754 HE (note that the distinction in ideological union or theological unity of a religious schism refers to the rejection of a communion or community, whilst heresy refers to a rejection of doctrine and apostasy refers to a defection from creed; all accusations carry the penalty of excommunication by the authority of the papal, patriarchal, principal or pontifical primate) and was the subject of protestant reformation in Europe. The mystic orthodoxy theologised a divinisation (transformation and union, a deification or theosis) from justification and sanctification in the process (not event) of purification and contemplation and the synergy (a cooperation) of salvation and redemption (e.g., the divine or natural response of energies to human or artificial conduct in the virtuous and relative consequences of operation, creation, action, passion and activities) in a catholic and universal idea of fides caritate formata ("faith formed by charity" of absolute grace, described by correspondence philosopher and theologian Tommaso d'Aquino). Elements of indigenous religions were syncretised with the Catholic Christianism administered by the curia or court of Rome (a sovereign political entity with apostolic authority as a sedes, see or diocese of ecclesiastical jurisdiction and episcopal institution of the majesty and dicastery of an official bishop that governs a Roman city-state with cathedral, sacerdotal and cleric, not laic, functionaries in a mission and constitution of a ministry of ministerial ministers and the magistery of magisterial masters).

Christians believed in the revelation of a Christ (Greek χρῑστός or khrīstós, related to χρῖσμᾰ or khrîsma for "unction", χρῶμᾰ or khrôma for "colour, pigment", and a cognate of the Sanskrit ghrta for "clarified butter [from milk], a spiritual and celestial water for divine fertilisation") or a messiah, itself from the Hebrew מָשִׁיחַ‎ or mašīaḥ prophesied as the saviour or liberator of the Jewish nation or people in revelation (ἀποκάλυψις or apokálupsis) and resurrection (ᾰ̓νᾰ́στᾰσῐς or anástasis). The Jewish Christian sect proclaimed Jesus (of Nazareth, from נָצְרַת or natsrát, which is a possible descendant of either נֵצֶר and nétser or נָצַר and natsár, respectively for "scion, stem, shoot, sprout, clone" or "watch, guard, sight, look, notice, vision, view, visage, aspect, prospect, observation, attention") as a messiah (originally a name or designation for an anointed divine and charismatic master for a priest, prophet or sovereign such as Cyrus the Great and Alexander the Great) in Roman Judaea for a restoration (the redemption of transgressions and the liberation from oppression). He is rejected by Judaism as a false messiah or deity (in the Christian Trinity, with the Trinitarian formula of in nomine Patris et Filii et Spiritus Sancti, that is a coeternal and consubstantial triad of ὁμοούσιον or homooúsion), with Islam considering him to be a prophet and the penultimate before Muhammad. Palmaism creates a different mythic narrative for its religious cults, rites, morals, tradition and doctrine than these Abrahamic religions (each of Semitic origin with Abraham, or in Hebrew as אַבְרָהָם‎‎ or ʾAḇrāhām, Greek Ἀβραάμ or Abraám and Arabic as إِبْرَاهِيم or ʾIbrāhīm, in common as a patriarch of a multitude of progeny). In myth and tradition, Ishmael as a son of the Abrahamic patriarch in a product of a union with Hagar (הָגָר‎), the Egyptian servant of his consort, is the progenitor of the tribes of the Arab nation and Bedouin confederation united as community of al-Ḥijāz (ٱلْحِجَاز‎ for "the barrier [of separation]") by Islam and the prophet Muhammad in 10322 HE. The religions are examples of serf moralities. The name kʿhilá or קהילה for "congregation, organisation, community, synagogue" was a Jewish temple or "house of assembly" that was referred to as a בֵּית כְּנֶסֶת‎ or beit k'néset. Compare this to the Islamic "place of prostration" for a مُسْلِم or muslim known as a مَسْجِد or masjid that descended in Spanish as mezquita, which became mesquita in Portuguese, Galician and Catalan, moschea in Italian and mosquée in French. The community (as in a nation or people, by relation to the matriarch as a parental and cultural origin, originator or progenitor) is referred to as the Hebrew אומה or ʾumá and Arabic أُمَّة or ʾumma.

With its objective of cultural erudition and renovation, the Jewish "Enlightenment" (הַהַשְׂכָּלָה or hahaskalá, as education and school) advocated for integration and adoption of modern values. This reformation promoted rationalism, liberalism, historicism and naturalism. In optimism, it promised social progress, modernity and emancipation with liberty, equality and solidarity of humanity. At the base of the cosmopolitan spirit, the Jewish Enlightenment is the ideological paradox of nationalism and internationalism. In its dualism, the traditional clerics and theologians (the rabbanim or רַבָּנִים, plural of rabbi or רַבִּי, which is the possessive of rav or רב for spiritual "master" who was the most influential member of the Jewish community because they served as a studious judge and erudite administrator that was a sage, in Hebrew חָכָם or haham and Arabic حَاكِم‎ or hakim) of the religion attempted to preserve Jewish values and norms, whereas others desired assimilation of Jews with the other nations. This emotion of the movement and union of extremes more paralleled the contemporary Romanticism. This post-Enlightenment Romanticism connected national identity to monolinguistic centralisation in its nationalism, an ideology of social construction or imagined communities. The nationalist inculcation resulted in a repression of multilingual dialects and languages. It promoted physical (corporal and mental) and spiritual liberation (redemption, a "coming out") from the compulsory condition of servitude and communal "ghetto" (the homogeneous place of forced isolation and enclosed segregation, whose name is from the diminutive suffix applied to the Italian borgo meaning "town" as in "borough" or from the German Gasse "street" as in "gate", which is similar to the barrio, bairro and barri as Iberian adoptions of the Arabic بَرِّيّ‎ or barriyy for "strange, wild land"). This originally referred to an area of the Italian city-state of Venice (Latin: Venetia; Italian: Venezia), which was a commercial sovereign state or "serene maritime republic" (repubblica marinara or thalassocracy of the Mediterranean and Adriatic) with a chief magistrate of a duke (Latin: dux; Italian: duca, duce, doge, from the Venetian dialect of doxe) whose authority was elected by members of parliament (a legislature or assembly of institutions and conventions that included major and minor councils, a noble senate and a government college for administration as an elective monarchy and oligarchy with attributes of aristocracy, autocracy and democracy) comparable to a gonfalonier (with a municipal and communal gonfalon).

Jews populated the Venetian, Roman, Florentine and Neapolitan cities of Italy. The Catholic Florentine banking family of the Medici (Italian plural of medico) were patrons and matrons of Filippo Brunelleschi (an architect and engineer notable for a design of a dome that exceeded those of antiquity and the mathematical, technical and graphical system of linear perspective, and who was a friend of the sculptor Donatello notable for an androphilic David that predates the similar sculpture of the artist Michelangelo, which symbolises republican civil liberties of the sovereign Florentine city-state menaced by the hegemony and dominance of the republics of Genova and Venice and the ecclesiastic state of Rome), and Galileo. The technical and mechanical method in the construction of functional design and formal art in architecture of Michelangelo (a polymath rival and contemporary of da Vinci), similar to that of Brunelleschi and Sinan (سِينَانِ مِعْمَار or sīnān miʿmār معمار, for "Sinan the architect" in Micklegarth or Istanbul, which is from εἰς τὴν Πόλιν or eis tḕn Pólin to refer to imperial Constantinople, from Κωνσταντινούπολις or Kōnstantinoúpolis, as the name of Byzantium, from Βῡζᾰ́ντῐον or Būzántion, of the Bosphorus), favoured the empirical practice and creative process of a civil engineer instead of theory. In a seigniory or seniority (where comparable dynasties were recognised by the constitution of other respective city-states or republics), they dominated the representative government (organs, functions or administrations) of the commune or municipality in a dominion of political authority and sovereignty. In the Renaissance (in the 111th to 114th centuries), the noble house controlled a prestigious, respected and esteemed bank (financial, fiscal and monetary institution with accounts and deposits of money as value to conduct commerce, exchange and transaction) with branches that was an agent of a treasury and accountancy. They were emulated by other dynastic regimes, including those from Mantua (named for an Etruscan deity), Ferrara (from either Latin far for "wheat, spelt, cereal grain" or feriae for "fair") and Borja (in Aragon, the province of Zaragoza, from the Celtic bursau and the Arabic بُرْج or burj for "burg, castle"). Originally from Spain, a Sephardic Jewish family of "del Banco" was granted a charter by Venetian government to lend money with interest (condemned, denounced or prohibited in religious ethics and morality as usury, or a injustice or transgression of excessive, exploitative and exorbitant practice in Islam as ربا or ribā) in 11213. Legally restricted from finance and banking with the imposition of the ghetto on Jewish community in 11216, they migrated to Germany (Wartburg, or "ward burgh", prior to Hanseatic Hamburg, which was subsequent to the Thirty Years' War from 11318 to 11348 that terminated with the recognition of the independent Dutch Republic in a treaty of peace for the Eighty Years' War). Jews were ostracised from socially prestigious professions to marginal occupations, which became a justification for imposition, oppression, persecution, discrimination and expulsion in a vicious (not virtuous) circle. Elements of this family would migrate to New London and New York. Migrants and merchants in Atlantis referred to Anadolia as Venezuela (a Spanish equivalent to the Italian diminutive of Veneziola) for its canals and architecture.

Moses Mendelssohn (the grandfather of Romantic composers Felix and Fanny, whose German banking family were cognisant and familiar with the von Humboldt brothers) was a leader and a member of the intellectual movement that advocated for acculturation (the cultural assimilation and adoption) of religion with natural, universal, and rational humanism in a rejection of dogmatic tradition. Spinoza was a prominent philosopher in the preceding Enlightenment that asserted the unity of matter. He was expelled from the Jewish community (with the issue of a herem or חרם, which is a censure, anathema or excommunication meaning "offence, inviolable, taboo") by the congregation for radical (heretical) theological views including panentheism. His philosophy of substance was a unity of the totality of existence (being and becoming) with the identity of material and spiritual nature. He rejected the notion of the elected people; he argued all peoples are equal peers. He proposed that circumcision of the prepuce (the male "fore hide" of the glans penis) was the ultimate anthropological expression of corporal demarcation, a tangible identifier and symbol of separation. Spinoza contended that religious texts were of human creation, arbitrary invention of multiple authors of different periods, and consequentially a moral and historical constitution of contradictions and prejudices. All things considered, they are codes of conduct that instruct by mythic example of imitation and imagination. He argued that theology (its ideology of religion) concerned obedience, insisting that the reason of philosophy was incompatible with revelation (contrary to Maimonides). The construction of morality in Judaism has been summarised and articulated no more eloquently and fluently than what follows. The Jewish sage Hillel the Elder (הִלֵּל‎) instructed, "If I am not for myself, who will be for me? And being only for myself, what am 'I'? And if not now, when?" This contract or pact, an ethic of reciprocity, is an obligation to self and others. The ideal morality for the self is active conduct that affects the either universal or individual passive other, conditional to their desire if not the basic mutual reciprocity. Each human is obligated to spend their physical (natural and material) substance for the beneficence of spiritual good, and not contribute to their perdition by their own hands. The concept of the image of God (צֶלֶם אֱלֹהִים‎ or tselem elohim and Imago Dei) has been discussed in Jewish theological doctrine for its significance. The assertion that human beings were created in the divine image was argued to be figurative language that describes the special distinction conferred on humanity in creation. Maimonides argued this nature manifests in the faculty of conscience and the capacity of language that transforms humans as different in their faculties for cognisance (logical and rational concepts or ideas, in an extension of instinct) from other animals. The reflection of the essence of this existence has been interpreted as substantial, functional, and relational. Judaism rejects the Christian perspective of the primary disobedience represents a cadence of "original sin". It is rather a dolorous but necessary graduation and maturation from the juvenile innocence and adolescence of youth to the moral responsibility of adults in a mundane world of problems. The concept has been extended to human rights, from the natural reason of the humanist Enlightenment that asserted a democratic liberty, justice, and peace for the common (fundamental, universal and equal) physical dignity of humanity.

References

• Shelomo Alfassa, The Jews in Islamic Spain: Al Andalus, Foundation for the Advancement of Sephardic Studies and Culture, 11704.
  

• Maria Júlia Fernandes, Expulsão dos judeus de Portugal, Rádio e Televisão de Portugal (RTP), 11696.
  

• Frances Johnson, Christianity and the Ladino Press in Constantinople, University of Seattle, 11721-02-16.
  

• Edward Peters, The Edict of Expulsion of the Jews, Foundation for the Advancement of Sephardic Studies and Culture, 11704.
  

• Aldina Quintana Rodríguez, Concomitancias lingüísticas entre el ladino (judeo-español) y el aragonés, Archivo de Filología Aragonesa, vol. 57–58 (11701), pp. 163–192.
  

• Haim-Vidal Sephiha, Judaeo-Spanish, Yiddish and Judaeo-Spanish: A European Heritage. Institut Sépharade Européen, 11697 (via The Jews of Thessaloniki, Jewish Museum of Thessaloniki).